Andamanese Music

by M.V. Portman 

This article is reprinted from The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, new series, vol. 21, 1888, pages 181-218. It is the earliest (and remains virtually the only) text ever published in the 19th century dealing specifically with Andamanese music. It is of considerable importance especially for the unique musical scores. The author, M. V. Portman had extensive knowledge only of the southern and middle Great Andamanese tribes and some knowledge of the Onge. When he refers to "the Andamanese," he does mean only the Great Andamanese. As he says himself in his text "of the northern (Great Andamanese) tribes we have more to learn..." If he ever did learn more, he kept his knowledge to himself. He nevertheless does include one example of music from northern Great Andaman. Rather eccentrically, he also includes a piece of Andamanese music composed by himself along with the East Bengal Boat song. Portman invented his own system of phonetic notation which he did not trouble to explain. We assume that the acute accent represents stress but what, for example, his use of the diaeresis signifies is unknown. A few later authors adopted Portman's spelling for the tribe of Little Andaman as "Öngé" - we have here rendered this in the simpler modern spelling of "Onge." Generally, it would be a pointless complication to reproduce Portman's phonetic system here. The second part of the article (from p. 197-203) deals with the music of Burma, Thailand and Java and is not reproduced here. Notes by the editor George Weber are in square brackets [G.H.J.W].

Art. VI.

Andamanese Music with Notes on Oriental Music and Music Instruments

by M. V. Portman, Esq., M.R.A.S.

The subject of Oriental Music is one which offers a large field for research, in which very little work has, as yet, been done.

The music of Arabia was very thoroughly investigated by Villoteau. Short papers have been written on the music of Persia. Eichhorn has written on the music of Afghanistan. Millard, and later Sir Sourindro Mohun Tagore, have described the music of Hindostan at some length. Javanese music has had some attention paid to it and Père Amiot, and later, Tradescant Lay, and Van Aalst, have described the musical system of China. Many small notes have been made on the music of most Eastern countries; but these, even when they are really accurate, are generally mixed with a mass of extraneous matter in some book of travel, scientific paper, or report, so that they are not easily procurable. In order to investigate Oriental Music, it is necessary that the inquirer should be a musician, somewhat above the ordinary amateur grade, and should also he acquainted with the language and customs of the people amongst whom he is inquiring. What is really wanted in England is a complete and exhaustive collection of all the musical instruments used throughout the world by Oriental and Extra-European nations, and this collection should be accompanied by such a mass of information, that the facts regarding the music of these nations may be laid before the student in a complete and intelligible form. The Questions drawn up by the late Mr. Carl Engel, for "The British Association for the Advancement of Science," and published in "Anthropological Notes and Queries," will greatly assist the investigator. Full scores of Oriental orchestral music we are entirely without, and these should be accompanied, where possible, by the words of the songs, or plays, etc.

The Sacred music of Oriental nations would he a most interesting g field for research, and a collection should be made of the treatises which the more civilised Asiatic nations possess on music.

In making these researches the greatest care is of course necessary. Engel's admirable work, "Study of National Music," might be consulted with advantage and I should

myself be glad to assist any inquirer.

The music of Asia may be divided into distinct branches, which have little or no connection with each other.

1. The music of pure aboriginal, and savage tribes.
2. The music of the Chinese.
3. The music of Siam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and Java.
4. The music of Hindostan, which differs greatly in different pants, and of which the ancient classical music, about which much has been written, and many fanciful theories have been evolved, differs almost entirely from the music performed in the present day.
5. The music of Persia and Arabia.
6. The music of Thibet and Nepaul.

Without going over ground which has been already traversed by others, I will give what little information I have been able to collect regarding these systems of' music.

With regard to the first class, I have made considerable researches into the music of the Andamanese, a race of whom I have been for some years in official charge.

The Andamanese are decidedly fond of their own music, but do not care much for that of other nations. Even among themselves the songs of more distant tribes, which differ in rhythm and intonation, are not much appreciated. Foreign music merely attracts their attention as a novelty. Their ear is not acute for discerning small musical intervals.

Experiments were made by me with several European and Oriental musical instruments of different "timbre." They have not good musical ears. The "Onges" appear to have more highly developed musical capabilities than the other tribes. Those who are considered, amongst themselves, to be the best singers, can generally nearly hit any note given to them on a European instrument, but the majority of the Andamanese, on whom I experimented, were about a semitone out. They are very slow at picking any European, or Asiatic tune, which may be sung or played to them, though quick enough at learning the choruses of each other's songs. The reason of this probably is that the rhythm is different from that to which they are accustomed, and the tunes are not in their ordinary song-compass; nor are the notes in their accustomed sequence.

The voices of the men are of medium loudness, rather rough, and steady, growing deeper and fuller in tone with age up to 35 years. After this it becomes very rough, husky, and tuneless. (The Andamanese age very quickly.) The boys' voices are clear and not unpleasant. The women's voices are clear but of bad intonation. "Falsetto" is common among both sexes, though their general "timbre" is not as nasal as that of more civilised Oriental races. The notes of the "Onge" tribes are quite smooth and round, and entirely free from nasal intonation. The usual compass of the voice in both sexes is about an octave. The man's is generally from C-c, though I have met men who can sing from Bb-e. Women generally sing from G-g. The prevailing male voice is barytone. The prevailing female voice is contralto. All the notes of the women are distinctly head and not chest notes.

With the exception of the "Pukuta Yemnga," [the sounding board. G.H.J. W.] about to be described, the Andamanese have no instrumental music; their music consisting only of songs in solo and chorus, which chorus is invariably sung by both sexes if available and is accompanied by a dance. They have no professional singers. The following appears to be their system of song. The men sing in unison; some women, with the children in falsetto, an octave above; the remainder of the women sing in what I believe is intended for a perfect fifth, but what is occasionally a minor sixth above the men. Difference of pitch in the voices introduces other notes, which can only be called "out of tune." Their singing is in regular duple time. This is more particularly marked in the choruses, when you have the rhythmical accompaniment. The continuance of one note, or of a sequence of notes, a little distance apart which is an attribute of Oriental music, often leads persons who do not know the meaning of the word to call Andamanese solos "recitative," which term, as meaning "musical declamation," does not in the least apply. They have only one species of song, which may treat of all subjects. They have no religious, nursery, or love songs. The principal subjects on which songs are composed are pig-hunting, fish-shooting, turtle and dugong spearing, fighting, making boats, bows, etc. The music, rhythm, accent, and intonation is no clue to the sense of the song, and a person not knowing the language would be ignorant as to to whether a fight, hunt, or the making of a boat, was being described. Every one composes songs. A man or woman would be thought very little of, who could not do so. Even the small children compose their own songs. Each person composes his own, and it is a great breach of etiquette to sing another person's song, particularly if the composer be dead.

The only notes in use in their songs are the following, and in this order:

The leading note, 1/4#. The Tonic. The Tonic, 1/4#.

The whole range of notes is therefore not equal to a superfluous second.

The general sequence, or progression of notes, used by the South Andaman tribes, is

Tonic. Tonic, 1/4#. Leading note, 1/4#.

I of course presume the Andamanese leading note to be a semi-tone below the tonic.

Of the northern tribes we have more to learn, but I doubt if any great difference will appear. The "Onge" tribes appear to have our diatonic intervals, but we know little of them. The songs conclude on what I assume to be the tonic, but which is in reality the second note of the scale.

In their solos, "Ritardando" and "Accellerando" are freely used, the chorus only being in strict time, which is invariably duple.

They have no traditions regarding music, except that the ''Chaoga-tabanga" or "ancestors" or "anecestors "(a great people, like the Greek Heroes, or Demi-gods), by their account, used to sing, and, as it is not etiquette to sing the song of a dead person, these are soon forgotten. As to their manner of composition, any person, wishing to compose a song for the evening's entertainment, i.e. dance, makes up the song to his satisfaction by continually trying it over, while engaged in anything which does not excite, or distract him.

I append some Andamanese songs, in score, which will illustrate my meaning.

As the Andamanese alter and clip at will the ordinary words of their language, to suit the rhythm of their songs, they may almost be said to possess a poetic dialect. This being the case, I have in the following instances translated the song into the vulgar tongue, and from that into English.

Song No. 1

Composed by an Andamanese man named "Bulubulla," of the "Aka-Balawa" [Akar-Bale, G.H.J.W.] tribe, resident in "Aila Juru." It relates how, when he was on a cruise in the local steamer [Portman often took selected Andamanese with him to contact and sightseeing trips on a government steam ship, G.H.J.W.], he sang a song, and another man learnt it.

Solo

Guma Nyunga-la dia chel lalot ramit loto eno dia chel lalot ramit-la.
Nyunga dera to oro boi la.
Nyunga dera oro, boi la.

Chorus

Nyunga dera oro boi ha.

In the ordinary Aka-Bia-da language [i.e. the Aka-Bea language. It is not obvious why Portman "translates" the Akar-Bale song from "poetic Akar-Bale" into "ordinary Aka-Bea" language, which is closely related to Akar-Bale but not identical to it, rather than into ordinary Akar-Bale. Andamanese linguistics is full of such apparently pointless riddles, G.H.J.W.]

Wai Guma Nyunga-la dia ot-enire, birma chelewa-len ot ramit lot wai adik eb akan podire, a idat oore.

In English

Master Nyunga-la sang with me on the steamer, and he learnt my song.

Chorus

Nyunga-la learnt my song.

This will be repeated many times, and perhaps one or more verses made up.

Song No. 2

A song by the same composer, describing how, when out with me in a small steamer, we passed up the coast of the North Andaman at night.

Solo

Bir-a lot erema ogar la ebngera chal edo ke dok, ebngera chal la.
Be choke wap lom, dakar tarai lot ta.

Chorus

Be choke wap lom, dakar tarai lot ta.

In Aka-Bia-da [Aka-Bea, G.H.J.W.]

Wai bira lot erema ogar la. chalet kagre, eb arachal dokre.
Choke iji dakar tar lotire.

In English

From the country of the Yerewas [Jarawas - the enemies of the Aka-Bea and Akar-Bale] the moon rose, it came near. It was very cold, I sat down.

Chorus

It was very cold, I sat down.

Song No. 3

Composed by an Andamanese man, named "Riala," [a favourite photographic subject of Portman's, elsewhere Portman described Riala as being from the Aka-Kede tribe of middle Great Andaman, G.H.J.W.] of the "Aka Jawa" [no such tribe is known even from Portman's other writing, G.H.J.W.] resident at "Yeretil." It relates how, while on a cruise in the local steamer, he sang to the North Andamanese, saying he was conning to meet them.

Solo

Do ngol aka-teggi leb, dakar jad al ngaka yabngo,
d'ot ogar lera loto chali beo.

Chorus

d'ot ogar lera loto chali beo.

In Aka-Bia-da [even more so than in Song no. 1: why translate this song into ordinary Aka-Bea when the composer was of the Aka-Kede or an unidentified "Aka-Jawa" tribe unless Riala composed in Aka-Bea? G.H.J.W.]

Do ngol aka-teggi leb, daka jadia kagke, aka yabnga lat. D'ot ogar lar lotire.

In English

I am coming to see you, the moon has gone down.

Chorus

The moon has gone down.

Song No. 4

By the same composer [as no. 3], saying that it was his fate, although one born in the interior jungle, to be always travelling about in the steamer.

Solo

Badinga yaba chana ur chal ya leb dabetire, ara chelia lat gono tet lot gutoi dab chati tong lot tar, lodo char beria oba ngika.

Chorus

Ar lodo char beria oba ngika.

In Aka Bia-da

Badinga yabada, chana d'abetire ara chelia lat dab gono tet lot gutore, dab chati tong la, don ik ar lodoke.

In English

I did not see, but I know I was born from my mother, for the work of the steamer, I was born in the jungle, where the Gono and Chati (edible roots) are, but I go often in the steamer.

Song No. 5

Composed by "Woichela" an Andamanese man of the "Aka Jawai" tribe [again this otherwise unknown tribe - Portman had earlier photographed a "Woichela" of the A-Pucikwar tribe and probably means this man here, G.H.J.W.] It relates how he was cutting a bow, and did it all himself.

Solo

I'kngat kopa loko tetan, oitan, uchoba d'on kichal
uchuba da ko dida, oh! oh! oh!

Chorus

Uchuba da, ko dida, oh! oh! oh!

In Aka Bia-da [Aka Bea]

Ba ngoda porngata, ikngat kopa loka tetan, uchuba d'on kichal do, dola uchuba, dola dedalire, oh! oh! oh!

In English

Solo

You did not make this, I made it, I, I, I, made it.

Chorus

I, I, I, made it.

Song No. 6

Composed by "Bulubulla," [apparently not to be confused with the man of the same name of Song no. 1, G.H.J.W.] an Andamanese man of the "Bojigiab" tribe [A-Pucikwar, resident at "Pich laka chakan," in "Barantan." [Baratan island, between southern and middle Great Andaman, G.H.J.W.]. It relates how Maia Poro saw a big turtle in the water, from the composer's boat, and laughed at it.

Solo

Maia Poro beringa la dia yadi chauma leb ngiji dal lo paal laka en ngiji dala-da, Poro l'ot yengo bia li da.

Chorus

Poro l'ot yengo bia li da.

In Aka Bia-da [Aka-Bea]

Maia Poro beringa dia yadi chauma lik ngiji edal lot pareka obada. Poro ot yengike b'edal-da.

In English

Solo

Maia Poro from my boat saw a big turtle in the water, and hit him in the eye. Poro laughed when he hit him in the eye.

Chorus

Poro laughed when he hit him in the eye.

Song No. 7

Composed by "Bia Mulwa," an Andamanese man of the "Aka Kol" tribe, resident at Long Island [off the south-eastern coast of middle Great Andaman, G.H.J.W.]. It relates how at the close of the day they were returning through the jungle slowly, when they heard the noise of a canoe being cut. Other verses describing the cutting of it, would probably be added to this song. The music of this song is not given.

Solo

Bodo da lata da teggi lo tid lara daka ke aba idab cha lomro.

Chorus

Ke aba idab cha lomro.

In Aka-Biada [Aka Bea]

Bodo da lat do oyo did laradake o teggi ke6 yabada mocho at laradake.

In English

Solo

At the end of the day we were going slowly, and heard the noise of a canoe being cut.

Chorus

We were going slowly.

Song No. 8

Composed by "Chana Lucla," an Andamanese woman of the "Aka Balawa" tribe [Akar Bale], married to a man of the "Aka Kede" tribe. She relates how putting the steering oar straight, she took the canoe out to sea, and then brought it back.

Solo

Do ngen ar geu dangali dat kopa lera golobaka, idat kopa Iera do ngen o dera elojro.

Chorus

Do ngen o dera elojro.

In Aka Bia-da [Aka Bea]

Tun ikngat kopa lera lat gora wai doi ngen oyo d'arlomke jurulen.

In English

Solo

I straightened the helm, and took the boat out into the sea, and then brought it back.

Chorus

I then brought it back.

Song No. 9

Composed by "Bia Boi," an Andamanese man of the "Bojigiab" [A-Pucikwar] tribe, resident at "Duratan." It relates how he was cutting a canoe.

Solo

Pus-e loringa lo dude poleC, pus-e loring o la; miate ba loringa la.

Chorus

Miate ba loringa la.

In Aka Bia-da [Aka Bea]

Baje loringa lo dudeool. Baje loringa-da Metat loringa-da.

In English

Solo

I am cutting the under part of a canoe's prow, I am cutting a canoe.

Chorus

I am cutting a canoe.

Song No. 10

Composed by "Kala," an Andamanese man of the "Aka Bia-da" [Aka Bea] tribe, resident at "Gop-laka-bang." It relates how, when standing at the bows of a canoe, he saw some fish.

Solo

Kapro, kapro dekan, kapro a, Bar leko, tia a-bada.

Chorus

Bar leko, tia A-bada.

In Aka Bia-da [Aka Bea]

Dol aba kapi, k'ol bedig, dol dekan kapike, dol kapi.
Walak-lek ot yat, dia yaba-da.

In English

Solo

I was standing, yes I was standing up. I was standing. In front of me are fish, but they are not mine.

Chorus

In front of me are fish, but they are not mine.

The two following songs composed by "Toke," an Andamanese of the "Aka Jawai" [Aka-Juwoi?] tribe, resident at "Pewiltaur," are given to show a two-line chorus of peculiar rhythm, used chiefly in the northern part of the Middle Andaman.

Solo

Juruwin la dik erata pucha la beat
Rokolo dig, ko tia la
Bang abgadi, ga daii bia.

Chorus

Biat.
Rokolo dig | | ko tia la
Bang abgadi, | | ga daii bia.

Also

Solo

Ebn wol loko pail-i diji, boi dedat kopo 1ot yubro,
Kala don wolo be.
Nura loij, rat kopa lot,
Yubro kala, don wolo be.

Chorus

Nuraloij | | rat kopa lot
Yubro kala, | | don wolo be

The following song composed by ''Ili,'' an Andamanese man of the "Aka Chariar" [Aka Cari in the extreme northern Great Andamans] tribe, resident at "Pait-ter-buliu," North Andaman, will serve to show the rhythm and style of song in use among the tribes in the North Andaman.

Solo			Chorus
Boruata	u u u -		Rai ebete	- u u -
Orumu	- - -		Uwa	- -
O rabira	- u u -		Iyu u	u u -
Ketoa	- - -
Rabeu	- - -
Ke rebele	- u u -
Rabe laa	u u - -
Rai ebete	- u u -
Eyo keto	- - u -
E ra bela	- - u -
Dala roe	- u - -
Eba bea	- u - -
Ta la	- -
Obe tara	u u u -
Ebe teu	- u - -
Rai ebete	- u u -
Uwa	- -
Iyu u	- u -

The following song, composed by myself [Portman] whilst on an expedition against the "Jarawa" tribes, shows how a song may have two choruses.

Solo

Jarawa la tinga odot, paliat era tinga oma, lebatera,
ting erak ioma leb.

Chorus

Ting erak iom leb.

or

Solo

Jarawa la tinga odot, paliat era, tinga oma, leb-at-ise,
ting erak iouma leb.

Chorus

Jarawa boima leb-at-ise.

I have not thought it necessary to copy out more songs because the above fully illustrate the music of the Andamanese and their poetry; and, as explained, none of the songs have the value of antiquity. The "Onge" songs I have as yet been unable to procure [Portman has never published anything further on the subject, G.H.J.W.].

The next point for notice in the singing of the Andamanese is a peculiar "finale," as follows:

Solo

Obe date ar ea.

or

Obae boyube date,

answered by

Chorus

Te are are a

all of which has absolutely no meaning.

This solo with the North, and North of the Middle Andaman tribes is

Solo

E' abe ara, e abe tara.

answered as before.

This finale closes the song, and a pause ensues, in which the only sound heard is the rhythmical time beat, which has a very weird effect and which ends in the time being suddenly broken, when a confused rapid rattle of beats is heard, the time changing from

continually repeated to

which after a few bars ceases entirely.

I will now describe the "Pukuta Yemnga" [the sounding board], the only musical, or rather rhythmical instrument of the Andamanese. It is an instrument of percussion, and is a shield-shaped piece of wood, which is placed with the narrow end in the ground, and struck with the foot. Any man can make one. It is almost invariably made of "Chalanga" wood (Pterocarpus dalbergioides, "Padouk") and is ornamented on the concave side with patterns in coloured earth put on generally by the women.

Holes, called "Aka-tob-langa-da," are cut in the broad end for a rope to be fastened to, which rope the performer holds in his hand. He has also, as a rule, an arrow in his hand, the pointed end of which he sticks into the instrument near the holes. It is used as a rest, and, with the rope, may be shifted to either hand. Ornaments of tassels are also occasionally tied on to these holes, and hang down underneath. No acoustic reason is given for the holes, and many "Pukutas" are found without them. The "Wolo"or Adze, is the only tool used in making the "Pukuta" which is not smoothed or finished in any way. The convex side of it follows the shape of the tree from which it has been cut; this side being generally the outer edge of the tree, with the bark removed, and the knots cut off. A big "Pukuta" takes a man (and it is usually made by one person) about a week to make.

When in use, the convex side of the "Pukuta" is uppermost, the pointed end is stuck in the ground, and kept in position with one foot. A stone is then placed under it, to keep it steady, and give it support.

Though the Andamanese sing when engaged in any employment, yet the dance is their only real musical performance. This may take place on the meeting of friends, after a successful day's sport, during the various initiatory ceremonies, in short, any event is made the pretext for a dance, which constitutes one of the greatest enjoyments in Andamanese life. It is also performed with certain observances of etiquette at a ceremony about 70 days after the funeral of a man, when his bones are distributed amongst his relatives.

The dances of the Andamanese are "the ordinary dance, or Koinga," "the Yadi-Gumul dance," which is only used at that ceremony, and "the Reg-jiri-gumul dance," which is peculiar to that ceremony. There also occur minor differences in these dances among the different tribes, which merely consist, on the men's part, of a different mode of swinging the hands, and on the women's part, of a greater or less accentuation of the curtesy. The principal dance of the Andamanese, which with a few variations prevails throughout all the tribes in the Great Andaman, is as follows, and though seen at its best when a large party meet together who have not seen each other for some time, and therefore vie with each other in the energy of their steps, or the newness of their songs, yet may be observed in most encampments of any size every evening. Although men, or rather boys, do take the women's part in the "Orchestra," yet a dance is not considered to be correct in the absence of women.

The "Pukuta Yemnga" having been placed at one end of the dancing ground (called "bulum"), which has been swept clean, the leader takes his stand at it, facing the ground. A number of women sit in a row on his left, and a cluster of men are behind him and on his right. The men who are going to dance sit or stand about at the edge of the ground.

The leader then commences a Solo, and, arriving at the Chorus, the women and men take it up and repeat it many times. The former sit upright with their legs straight before them, crossed a little above the ankle, and slap the hollow between their thighs with one open hand which is held at the wrist by the other. The men who and not dancing clap their hands, all in exact time. The leader strikes the "Pukuta" with the inner part of one foot, principally with the heel.

After about one bar of the chorus has been sung, the dancers commence with great vehemence. They do not form any figure, but go where they choose, and stop when they are tired.

The step of the men's dance is, Strike the ground with the right heel, the toes not being raised off the ground; then with the left heel, the whole foot being raised off the ground, and then again with the right heel, 2/4

This completes one step, and is repeated for some time till the right foot is tired, when they commence with the left foot. All this time the body is bent slightly forward from the hips, the back curved well inwards; and the arms being out-stretched, the first fingers and thumbs of both hands are interlaced. (There are many ways, however, of holding the fingers, this being purely a matter for the dancer's taste.] As the leader becomes tired, he is relieved at the "Pukuta" by another, and joins in the dance. The leader continues to sing for some time, and when tired is succeeded by the man who relieved him. This obtains always.

The step of the women's dance is, "Swinging their arms backwards and forwards, and alternately raising their heels from the ground. Then raising their hands they will cross their wrists, then go back, after a little while, to the first position.'' 'They also every minute or so advance a few steps.

The men when tired, but not wishing to cease dancing, have a step called, "Denaoke," which is performed thus: "they simply stand and raise their heels alternately, keeping their toes on the ground." A great feature in this dance is that occasionally several men ceasing from their steps will cross the floor with a trotting motion, shouting the while. The time in all their motions is perfect, and very interesting to watch. As the Andamanese are always stark naked, with the exception of a leaf worn by the women, and their ornaments, the sight is a curious one.

The dances take place in the evening and at night in the dense jungle, often with no light but that of the flickering fires, and the effect is very weird. Sometimes they light a torch or throw a blazing mass of resin on the ground. They quite lose themselves in the excitement of the dance.

Special ornaments are worn by some, viz. a circular band of leaf round the head, with bunches of fibre stuck in it, and bunches of the same fibre are stuck in their waistbelt behind. The young men often dress and paint extensively for the dance, and are proud of their dancing.

A peculiar effect is produced when occasionally the music, i.e. the song, ceases, and nothing is heard but the rhythmical beat. Women occasionally relieve men at the "Pukuta," but do not often sing. A few differences may be noticed from the above, as, for instance, the Aka Yeri [Aka Jeru, G.H.J.W.] and Aka Chariar [Aka Cari, G.H.J.W.] tribes, when dancing, swing their hands from the hip to the chin in time with the dance. From what I have seen of the Jarawa and Onge [before the 20th century, the term Jarawa was often used indiscriminately for Onge and Jarawa. It is likely that Portman here means only the Onge; it is not clear when and where Portman could possibly have observed a dance by what we today call the Jarawa - he certainly does not claim to have done so anywhere else in his published work, G.H.J.W.], it would seem to be in imitation of the act of coition.

In the ceremonies of "Yadi-gumul-le," or eating turtle, and "Reg-jiri-gumul-le," or eating the breast of the pig, under certain circumstances and conditions, a dance peculiar to each ceremony obtains. For a description of the ceremonies I must refer you to Mr. E. H. Man's work "On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands." The "Yadi-gumul-le" dance is as follows: "Men, and occasionally women, taking branches of leaves in both hands, jump in the air with both feet together, bending down, and striking the ground with the branches as they return to the earth, and then rising erect for a second jump."

The "Reg-jiri-gumul-le" dance is similar, but one foot, the left, is kept permanently on the ground, while the right is alternately in the air, or beating the ground. The bunches of leaves are used in the same way.

No song or "Pukuta" is used in these two dances, and they are performed to merely the rhythmical clapping of hands and slapping of thighs. Only those who have gone through the ceremonies may assist the initiate at these dances.

The Nicobarese possess two musical instruments, one a seven-holed flageolet, which is evidently that of the Burmese, and the other a stringed instrument, called "Danang." It is made of the large bamboo, is about three feet long, and has three frets and one string of cane. Two holes are made in the bamboo for sound-holes. This instrument is laid across the knees when played, and produces a very good and powerful tone. It is in my opinion borrowed from the Indian "Sitar." The Nicobarese have many dances and songs, which have not yet been collected.

[the rest of Portman's article concerns itself with the music of Burma, Siam and Java, G.H.J.W..]

I may remark, in conclusion, that all the instruments mentioned in this paper have been brought to England by me, and placed in the "Pitt-Rivers" Museum at the University of Oxford. 

 

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